SARS-CoV-2 infection in healthcare workers, and biomarkers of long COVID
Abstract
I denne doktorgradsavhandlingen har vi studert risikoen for å bli smittet av SARS-CoV-2 virus blant norske helsearbeidere gjennom de ulike covid-19 smittebølgene. Kunnskap om prevalens og risikofaktorer for smitte hos helsearbeidere eksiterte ikke. Videre, studerte vi immunresponsen etter infeksjon hos helsearbeidere, ved å følge antistoff og proteom-responser over tid. Long-COVID er et nytt begrep som beskriver langtidssymptomer etter gjennomgått infeksjon og er blitt et globalt folkehelseproblem. Vi studerte potensielle biomarkører for long-COVID og sammenlignet serologisk antistoff- og protein nivåer etter SARS-CoV-2-infeksjon, vaksinasjon og hos dem som utviklet long-COVID.
Vi fant at Norske helsearbeidere hadde en infeksjonsrate på 10% (122/1,214) i 2020, som tilsvarer andre globale prevalenstall (mean 11%; variasjon 0-59%) i 2020-2021. I norgen økte infeksjonsraten gjennom hele 2020 i Norge, fra 5,7% i mars-mai til 7,9% i juni-september, og med en topp på 11,3% i oktober-desember 2020. Vi fant at det å dele husstand med bekreftet covid-19-tilfeller, var den sterkeste risikofaktoren for smitte blant helsepersonell. Manglende opplæring i innen smittevernrutiner og utilstrekkelig bruk av personlig smittevernsutstyr, samt å utføre aerosolgenererende prosedyrer og arbeid som renholder økte smitterisikoen ytterligere. Omvendt fant vi at tidligere karantene og hyppig desinfisering av berøringsflater var beskyttende faktorer. Helsepersonell med sikker eksponering for covid-19 hadde sterkest antistoffresponser, spesielt tidlig i pandemien. Helsepersonell med hybrid immunitet, definert som både gjennomgått covid-19 infeksjon og vaksinering med de nye mRNA vaksinene (BNT162b2 eller ChAdOx1-S), oppnådde sterkere antistoffnivåer etter fem måneder sammenlignet med uvaksinerte helsepersonell.
SARS-CoV-2-infeksjon kan gi langvarige komplikasjoner, mer enn 3 måneder etter symptomdebut, kjent som long-COVID. Sammenlignet med nylig infiserte individer, ga reinfeksjon hos vaksinerte med long-COVID høyere nivå av nukleokapsid-antistoffer, men lavere nivåer av spike-antistoffer. Maskinlæringsmodeller identifiserte 14 proteiner som var sterkt assosiert med long-COVID eller rask bedring (nøyaktighet 55-75%, n = 57). Pasienter med long-COVID viste en dysregulert immunprofil 6-9 måneder etter infeksjon med for eksempel forhøyet IL-20, HAGH, NAA, CLEC10A og nedsatt TRAIL, G-CSF. Funn av disse markørene kan være et tegn på at long-COVID er assosiert med pågående lav-grad inflammasjon hos individer.
Denne studien bidrar til å belyse de komplekse immunresponsene som oppstår etter covid-19 infeksjon og ved long-COVID. Funnene av immunmarkører kan gi muligheter for diagnose og potensiell behandling i fremtiden. At the start of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, there was limited data on the prevalence and risk factors of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection in healthcare workers (HCWs). There was an urgent need for the serological assessment of antibody and protein concentrations following SARS-CoV-2 infection, vaccination, breakthrough infection and long COVID. Hence, this PhD thesis investigates the risk of SARS-CoV-2 infection among Norwegian HCWs, and globally. Additionally, plasma protein concentrations were evaluated to identify potential biomarkers in long COVID.
Norwegian HCWs had an average 10% infection rate (122/1,214) in 2020, which started at 5.7% in March-May and increased to 7.9% in June-September, culminating in a peak of 11.3% in October-December 2020. These findings agreed with the global average infection rate of 11% (0-59% range) during 2020-2021 from our meta-analysis of 63 studies including 283,932 HCWs. Household exposure to SARS-CoV-2 was the strongest risk factor for SARS-CoV-2 infection, followed by working as a cleaner, inadequate training on infection prevention and control, inefficient use of personal protective equipment, and performing aerosol-generating procedures. Conversely, quarantine and frequent decontamination were protective factors. HCWs working in high-risk departments, i.e., directly managing COVID-19 cases, had higher SARS-CoV-2 specific antibody responses. Hybrid immunity after prior infection and vaccination with BNT162b2 or ChAdOx1-S resulted in more robust antibody levels over a five-month period compared to vaccine-induced immunity.
SARS-CoV-2 infection can lead to long-term complications beyond 3 months of symptom onset, known as long COVID. We assessed 182 circulating proteins to identify biomarkers of long COVID. The fourteen top biomarkers were substantially associated with long COVID or recovery (accuracy 55-75%, n = 57). Long COVID patients exhibited dysregulated immune profiles 6-9 months post-infection, characterised by elevated levels of interleukin-20 (IL-20), hydroxyacylglutathione hydrolase (HAGH), N-acylethanolamine- hydrolysing acid amidase (NAAA), and C-type lectin domain containing 10A (CLEC10A), as well as decreased levels of tumour necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL) and granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF). These immune abnormalities may contribute to persistent inflammation in a subset of individuals with long COVID. Compared to newly infected individuals, breakthrough infection in vaccinees with long COVID generated higher plasma nucleocapsid but lower spike antibodies. This study deciphers the complex immune response in long COVID, offering potential avenues for diagnosis and management.
Together, this thesis provided new knowledge to reduce infection in HCWs for future pandemic preparedness and provided novel biomarkers that could aid future diagnosis and management of long COVID.
Has parts
Paper 1. Trieu, M.C., Bansal, A., Madsen, A., Zhou, F., Savik, M., Vahokoski, J., Brokstad, K.A., Krammer, F., Tondel, C., Mohn, K.G.I., et al. SARS-CoV-2- Specific Neutralizing Antibody Responses in Norwegian Health Care Workers After the First Wave of COVID-19 Pandemic: A Prospective Cohort Study. J Infect Dis 223, 589-599 (2021). The article is available at: https://hdl.handle.net/11250/2755253.Paper 2. Bansal, A., Trieu, M.C., Mohn K.G.I., Madsen A., Olofsson J.S., Sandnes H.H., Savik M., Soyland H., Hansen L., Onyango T.B., et al. Risk assessment and antibody responses to SARS-CoV-2 in healthcare workers. Front. Public Health 11 (2023). The article is available at: https://hdl.handle.net/11250/3105616.
Paper 3. Bansal, A., Trieu M.C., Eriksson E.M., Zhou F., McVernon J., Brokstad, K.A. & Cox, R.J. SARS-CoV-2 infection rates and associated risk factors in healthcare settings: systematic review and meta-analysis (submitted). Research Square (2024). Preprint (Version 2). The manuscript is available in the thesis. The preprint is also available at: https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4602421/v2.
Paper 4. Bansal, A., Olechnowicz, S.W.Z., Kiernan-Walker, N., Cumming, J., Mazhari, R., COVID PROFILE consortium, Cox, R.J., Mueller, I., Bowden, R. & Eriksson, E.M. Divergent inflammatory and neurology-related plasma protein profiles in individuals with long COVID following primary and breakthrough SARS-CoV-2 infections (submitted). medRxiv. (2024). Preprint (Version 1). The manuscript is available in the thesis. The preprint is also available at: https://doi.org/10.1101/2024.09.06.24312838.